Usefulness of Sunlight and Artificial UV Radiation Versus Chlorine for the Inactivation of Cryptosporidium Oocysts: An in Vivo Animal Study
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2018.180Keywords:
Cryptosporidium, Sunlight, Ultraviolet, Chlorine, InactivationAbstract
BACKGROUND: Cryptosporidium is an important waterborne protozoan.
AIM: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sunlight being the natural source of UV and artificial UV irradiation on Cryptosporidium oocysts versus the effect of chlorination, being the traditional method of water disinfection and to provide an insight into the viability and degree of infectivity of Cryptosporidium oocysts, using an animal model.
METHODS: An experimental study including 300 neonatal mice was carried out to investigate the effect of artificial ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and sunlight being the natural source of UV irradiation versus chlorine, the traditionally used water disinfectant on the infectivity of Cryptosporidium oocysts present in water. For each item, nine different exposure times were investigated. Parasitological assessment (Modified Ziehl Neelsen stained stool smears) and histopathological assessment of the excised segments of the small intestine (stained by both Haematoxylin & Eosin and ZN stain) of mice were used to verify the inactivation of oocysts.
RESULTS: Cryptosporidium oocysts failed to induce any noticeable infection after 4 hours of artificial UV exposure that provided a UV dose of 10mJ/cm2 and after an 8 hours exposure to sunlight, whereas they showed resistance to disinfection by chlorine.
CONCLUSION: The results of the study demonstrate the important role of an 8 hours sunlight exposure of potable water in plastic bottles in achieving complete inactivation of any contaminating Cryptosporidium oocysts, thus offering an applicable, economical and convenient method for the control of cryptosporidiosis especially in developing countries.Downloads
Metrics
Plum Analytics Artifact Widget Block
References
Karanis P, Kourenti C, Smith H. Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: a worldwide review of outbreaks and lessons learnt. Journal of water and health. 2007; 5(1):1-38. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.002 PMid:17402277
Li N, Xiao L, Alderisio K, Elwin K, Cebelinski E, Chalmers R, Santin M, Fayer R, Kvac M, Ryan U, Sak B. Subtyping Cryptosporidium ubiquitum, a zoonotic pathogen emerging in humans. Emerging infectious diseases. 2014; 20(2):217. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2002.121797 PMid:24447504 PMCid:PMC3901490
Venczel LV, Arrowood M, Hurd M, Sobsey MD. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and Clostridium perfringens spores by a mixed-oxidant disinfectant and by free chlorine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1997; 63(4):1598-601. PMid:9097455 PMCid:PMC168452
Schaefer FW, Marshall MM, Clancy JL. Inactivation and Removal of Enteric Protozoa in Water BT - The Pathogenic Enteric Protozoa: Giardia, Entamoeba, Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora. In: Sterling Charles R, Adam Rodney D, editors. Boston, MA: Springer US; 2004:117–27. PMid:15255221
Liu Y, Dong S, Kuhlenschmidt MS, Kuhlenschmidt TB, Drnevich J, Nguyen TH. Inactivation mechanisms of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by solar ultraviolet irradiation. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology. 2015; 1(2):188-98. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EW00079J
Lumb R, Swift J, James C, Papanaoum K, Mukherjee T. Identification of the Microsporidian parasite, Enterocytozoon bieneusi in faecal samples and intestinal biopsies from an aids patient. Int J Parasitol. 1993; 23(6):793–801. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7519(93)90077-C
Gaafar Maha R. Effect of solar disinfection on viability of intestinal protozoa in drinking water. J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2007; 37(1):65–86. PMid:17580569
Garcia LS, Bruckner DA. Macroscopic and microscopic examination of fecal specimens. Diagnostic Med. Parasitol. 5th ed. ASM press, Washington D.C.; 1997:608–49.
Gómez-Couso H, Fontán-Sainz M, Ares-Mazás E. Thermal contribution to the inactivation of Cryptosporidium in plastic bottles during solar water disinfection procedures. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene. 2010; 82(1):35-9. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0284 PMid:20064992 PMCid:PMC2803506
Morita S, Namikoshi A, Hirata T, Oguma K, Katayama H, Ohgaki S, Motoyama N, Fujiwara M. Efficacy of UV irradiation in inactivating Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Applied and environmental microbiology. 2002; 68(11):5387-93. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.68.11.5387-5393.2002 PMid:12406729 PMCid:PMC129916
Carpenter C, Fayer R, Trout J, Beach MJ. Chlorine disinfection of recreational water for Cryptosporidium parvum. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999; 5(4):579–84. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0504.990425 PMid:10458969 PMCid:PMC2627758
Benamrouz S, Guyot K, Gazzola S, Mouray A, Chassat T, Delaire B, Chabé M, Gosset P, Viscogliosi E, Dei-Cas E, Creusy C. Cryptosporidium parvum infection in SCID mice infected with only one oocyst: qPCR assessment of parasite replication in tissues and development of digestive cancer. PLoS One. 2012; 7(12):e51232. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051232 PMid:23272093 PMCid:PMC3521773
Rossi P, Pozio E, Besse MG, Gomez Morales MA, La Rosa G. Experimental cryptosporidiosis in hamsters. J Clin. 1990; 28(2):356–7.
Garcia LS. Clinically important human parasites: Intestinal protozoa: Cryptosporidium spp. Diagnostic Med. Parasitol. 5th ed., ASM press, Washington D.C.; 2007:771–812.
Certad G, Ngouanesavanh T, Guyot K, Gantois N, Chassat T, Mouray A, Fleurisse L, Pinon A, Cailliez JC, Dei-Cas E, Creusy C. Cryptosporidium parvum, a potential cause of colic adenocarcinoma. Infectious agents and cancer. 2007; 2(1):22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1750-9378-2-22 PMid:18031572 PMCid:PMC2217515
Rychlik A, Nieradka R, Kander M, Nowicki M, Wdowiak M, Kolodziejska-Sawerska A. A correlation between the canine Inflammatory Bowel Disease Activity Index score and the histopathological evaluation of the small intestinal mucosa in canine inflammatory bowel disease. Pol J Vet Sci. 2012; 15(2):315–21. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10181-012-0093-4 PMid:22844710
Healey MC, Yang S, Rasmussen KR, Jackson MK, Du C. Therapeutic efficacy of paromomycin in immunosuppressed adult mice infected with Cryptosporidium parvum. J Parasitol. 1995; 81(1):114–6. https://doi.org/10.2307/3284020 PMid:7876965
McGuigan KG, Mendez-Hermida F, Castro-Hermida JA, Ares-Mazas E, Kehoe SC, Boyle M, et al. Batch solar disinfection inactivates oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum and cysts of Giardia muris in drinking water. J Appl Microbiol. 2006; 101(2):453–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02935.x PMid:16882154
Reinoso R, Bécares E. Environmental inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in waste stabilization ponds. Microbial ecology. 2008; 56(4):585-92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-008-9378-7 PMid:18345476
Halliday Gary M, Byrne Scott N, Damian Diona L. Ultraviolet A radiation: its role in immunosuppression and carcinogenesis. Semin Cutan Med Surg. 2011; 30(4):214–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sder.2011.08.002 PMid:22123419
Stephens Thomas J, Herndon James H Jr, Colon Luz E, Gottschalk Ronald W. The impact of natural sunlight exposure on the UVB-sun protection factor (UVB-SPF) and UVA protection factor (UVA-PF) of a UVA/UVB SPF 50 sunscreen. J Drugs Dermatol. 2011; 10(2):150–5. PMid:21283919
Fayer R. Effect of sodium hypochlorite exposure on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts for neonatal BALB/c mice. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1995; 61(2):844–6. PMid:7574626 PMCid:PMC167349
Barbee SL, Weber DJ, Sobsey MD, Rutala WA. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst infectivity by disinfection and sterilization processes. Gastrointest Endosc. 1999; 49(5):605–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-5107(99)70389-5
Weir Susan C, Pokorny Nicholas J, Carreno Ramon A, Trevors Jack T, Lee Hung. Efficacy of Common Laboratory Disinfectants on the Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts in Cell Culture. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002; 68(5):2576–9. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.68.5.2576-2579.2002 PMid:11976138 PMCid:PMC127548
Finch GR, Black EK, Gyurek LL. Ozone and chlorine inactivation of Cryptosporidium. Water Qual Technol Conf Am Water Work Assoc Denver, Colo., 1995:1303–1318.
Delling C, Holzhausen I, Daugschies A, Lendner M. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum under laboratory conditions. Parasitology research. 2016; 115(2):863-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-015-4813-4 PMid:26566617
Ryu H, Gerrity D, Crittenden JC, Abbaszadegan M. Photocatalytic inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum with TiO2 and low-pressure ultraviolet irradiation. Water research. 2008; 42(6-7):1523-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.10.037 PMid:18037465
Craik SA, Weldon D, Finch GR, Bolton JR, Belosevic M. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts using medium- and low-pressure ultraviolet radiation. Water Res. 2001; 35(6):1387–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00399-7
Betancourt Walter Q, Rose Joan B. Drinking water treatment processes for removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Vet Parasitol. 2004; 126(1):219–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.09.002 PMid:15567586
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0