Age-Related Changes in Energy Expenditure
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2026.12051Keywords:
Aging, Energy Expenditure, Resting Metabolic Rate, Thermic Effect of Food, Non-Exercise Activity, ThermogenesisAbstract
BACKGROUND: Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE) is a dynamic parameter influenced by basal metabolic rate (BMR), thermic effect of food (TEF), and activity-related energy expenditure (AEE). With aging, all components of TDEE undergo measurable declines due to changes in body composition, hormonal regulation, and physical activity. Understanding these age-related changes is critical for addressing malnutrition, sarcopenia, frailty, and metabolic diseases in older adults.
AIM: This review synthesizes current knowledge on the physiological, cellular, and behavioral determinants of energy expenditure across the lifespan, with an emphasis on elderly populations.
METHODS: A comprehensive literature analysis was conducted, including randomized controlled trials, observational cohort studies, and mechanistic research, focusing on age-related trends in BMR, TEF, AEE, non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), and organ-specific metabolic rates.
RESULTS: Aging is associated with reductions in fat-free mass (FFM) and specific metabolic rates of major organs. Mitochondrial dysfunction, decreased Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase activity, and diminished protein synthesis contribute to lower BMR. TEF declines due to reduced sympathetic responsiveness. AEE and NEAT are significantly impacted by behavioral, neurological, and structural limitations, leading to a progressive fall in total energy expenditure. Notably, higher AEE is independently associated with reduced mortality risk and better physiological resilience in older adults.
CONCLUSION: Age-related energy expenditure decline is multifactorial and partially modifiable. Preservation of physical activity and metabolic health through targeted interventions may mitigate the adverse effects of aging on energy balance and overall health.
Downloads
Metrics
Plum Analytics Artifact Widget Block
References
Ravussin E, Lillioja S, et al. Determinants of 24-hour energy expenditure in man. Methods and results using a respiratory chamber. J Clin Invest. 1986;78:1568-78. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI112749 PMid:3782471 PMCid:PMC423919
Human energy requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Food and Agriculture Organization, FAO Food and Nutrition Technical Report Series No. 1. 2004 Rome, Italy.
Weir J.B. New methods for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism. J Physiol . 1949;109:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1949.sp004363 PMid:15394301 PMCid:PMC1392602
Bader N, Bosy-Westphal A, Dilba B, et al. Intra- and interindividual variability of resting energy expenditure in healthy male subjects - biological and methodological variability of resting energy expenditure. Br J Nutr . 2007;94:843-849. https://doi.org/10.1079/BJN20051551 PMid:16277790
Melanson E.L, Coelho L.B, Tran Z.V, et al. Validation of the BodyGem hand-held calorimeter. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord . 2004;28:1479-1484. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802643 PMid:15326463
Hipskind P, Glass C, Charlton D, et al. Do handheld calorimeters have a role in assessment of nutrition needs in hospitalized patients? A systematic review of literature. Nutr Clin Pract . 2011;26:426-433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533611411272 PMid:21775638 PMCid:PMC4581882
Harris J.A, Benedict F.G. A biometric study of human basal metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1918;4:370-373. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.4.12.370 PMid:16576330 PMCid:PMC1091498
Mifflin M.D, St Jeor S.T, Hill L.A, et al. A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals. Am J Clin Nutr . 1990;51:241-247. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241 PMid:2305711 PMCid:PMC9292076
Weijs P.J. Validity of predictive equations for resting energy expenditure in US and Dutch overweight and obese class I and II adults aged 18-65 y. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:959-970. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/88.4.959 PMid:18842782
Elia M. Organ and Tissue Contribution to Metabolic Rate. In: Kinney J.M, Tucker H.N, eds. Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Coeollaries . New York: Raven Press; 1992:61-80.
Gallagher D, Belmonte D, Deurenberg P, et al. Organ-tissue mass measurement allows modeling of REE and metabolically active tissue mass. Am J Physiol . 1998;275:E249-E258. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1998.275.2.E249 PMid:9688626
Bosy-Westphal A, Müller M.J, Boschmann M, et al. Grade of adiposity affects the impact of fat mass on resting energy expenditure in women. Br J Nutr . 2008;101:474-477. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508020357 PMid:19230079
Gallagher D, Allen A, Wang Z, et al. Smaller organ tissue mass in the elderly fails to explain lower resting metabolic rate. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 2006;904:449-455. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06499.x PMid:10865788
Manini T.M. Energy expenditure and aging. Ageing Res Rev. 2010;9-1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2009.08.002 PMid:19698803 PMCid:PMC2818133
Buchholz A.C, Rafii M, Pencharz P.B. Is resting metabolic rate different between men and women? Br J Nutr . 2001;86:641-646. https://doi.org/10.1079/BJN2001471 PMid:11749674
Westerterp K.R. Diet induced thermogenesis. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2004;5(1):1-5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-1-5 PMid:15507147 PMCid:PMC524030
Jones P.P, Van Pelt R.E, Johnson D.G, et al. Role of sympathetic neural activation in age- and habitual exercise-related differences in the thermic effect of food. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:5138-5144. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-0101 PMid:15472218
Du S, Rajjo T, Santosa S, Jensen M.D. The thermic effect of food is reduced in older adults. Horm Metab Res . 2014;46:365-369. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0033-1357205 PMid:24155251 PMCid:PMC4366678
Melanson K.J, Saltzman E, Vinken A.G, et al. The effects of age on postprandial thermogenesis at four graded energetic challenges: findings in young and older women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci . 1998;53:B409-B414. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/53A.6.B409 PMid:9823736
Donahoo W.T, Levine J.A, Melanson E.L. Variability in energy expenditure and its components. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care . 2004;7:599-605. https://doi.org/10.1097/00075197-200411000-00003 PMid:15534426
Piaggi P, Krakoff J, Bogardus C, et al. Lower "awake and fed thermogenesis" predicts future weight gain in subjects with abdominal adiposity. Diabetes . 2013;62:4043-4051. https://doi.org/10.2337/db13-0785 PMid:23974925 PMCid:PMC3837038
Black A.E, Coward W.A, Cole T.J, et al. Human energy expenditure in affluent societies: an analysis of 574 doubly-labelled water measurements. Eur J Clin Nutr . 1996;50:72-92.
Schoeller D.A, van Santen E. Measurement of energy expenditure in humans by doubly labeled water method. J Appl Physiol . 1982;53:955-959. PMID: 6759491 https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1982.53.4.955 PMid:6759491
International Atomic Energy Agency, . Assessment of Body Composition and Total Energy Expenditure in Humans Using Stable Isotope Techniques; Vienna, Austria . 2009.
Speakman J.R, Nair K.S, Goran M.I. Revised equations for calculating CO2 production from doubly labeled water in humans. Am J Physiol . 1993;264:E912-E917. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1993.264.6.E912 PMid:8333517
O'Driscoll R, Turicchi J, Beaulieu K, et al. How well do activity monitors estimate energy expenditure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the validity of current technologies. Br J Sports Med . 2020;54:332-340. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099643 PMid:30194221
Rubner, 1908- Rubner M. Das problem der Lebensdauer und seine Beziehungen sum Wachstum under Ehrnarung. Oldenburg: Munich; 1908. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783486736380
Holloszy JO, Smith EK. Longevity of cold-exposed rats: a reevaluation of the "rate-of-living theory". J Appl Physiol. 1986;61:1656-60. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1986.61.5.1656 PMid:3781978
Austad SN, Fischer KE. Mammalian aging, metabolism, and ecology: evidence from the bats and marsupials. J Gerontol. 1991;46:B47-53. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/46.2.B47 PMid:1997563
Manini TM, Everhart JE, et al. Daily activity energy expenditure and mortality among older adults. Jama. 2006;296:171-9. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.2.171 PMid:16835422
Black AE, Coward WA, Cole TJ, Prentice AM. Human energy expenditure in affluent societies: an analysis of 574 doubly-labelled water measurements. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1996 Feb;50(2):72-92.
Morley JE. Decreased food intake with aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2001;56(Spec No 2):81-8. Wakimoto P, Block G. Dietary intake, dietary patterns, and changes with age: an epidemiological perspective. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2001;56(Spec No 2):65-80. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/56.suppl_2.65 PMid:11730239
Heymsfield SB, Gallagher D, et al. Body-size dependence of resting energy expenditure can be attributed to nonenergetic homogeneity of fat-free mass. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;282:E132-8. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.2002.282.1.E132 PMid:11739093
Calder W. Size, Function, and Life History. Dover Publications; New York: 1996.
Elia M, Ritz P, et al. Total energy expenditure in the elderly. Eur J Clin Nutr 54 Suppl. 2000;3:S92-103. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601030 PMid:11041080
Poehlman ET, Goran MI, et al. Determinants of decline in resting metabolic rate in aging females. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:E450-5. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1993.264.3.E450 PMid:8460693
Krems C, Luhrmann PM, et al. Lower resting metabolic rate in the elderly may not be entirely due to changes in body composition. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:255-62. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602066 PMid:15494736
Bean B. Composite study of weight of vital organs in man. Am J Phys Anthrop. 1926;9:293-317. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330090317
Garby L, Lammert O, et al. Weights of brain, heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen in health and apparently healthy adult danish subjects. Am J Hum Biol. 1993;5:291-296. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.1310050307 PMid:28548411
Gallagher D, Visser M, et al. Metabolically active component of fat-free body mass: influences of age, adiposity, and gender. Metabolism. 1996;45:992-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0026-0495(96)90269-3 PMid:8769358
He Q, Heshka S, et al. Smaller Organ Mass with Greater Age, Except for Heart. J Appl Physiol. 2009 . https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.90454.2008 PMid:19325028 PMCid:PMC2692775
Rolfe DF, Brown GC. Cellular energy utilization and molecular origin of standard metabolic rate in mammals. Physiol Rev. 1997;77:731-58. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1997.77.3.731 PMid:9234964
Wang Z, Ying Z, Bosy-Westphal A, Zhang J, Heller M, Later W, Heymsfield SB, Müller MJ. Evaluation of specific metabolic rates of major organs and tissues: comparison between men and women. Am J Hum Biol. 2011 May-Jun;23(3):333-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.21137 PMid:21484913 PMCid:PMC3139779
Kohrt WM, Obert KA, et al. Exercise training improves fat distribution patterns in 60- to 70-year-old men and women. J Gerontol. 1992;47:M99-105. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/47.4.M99 PMid:1624697
Van Pelt RE, Jones PP, et al. Regular exercise and the age-related decline in resting metabolic rate in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:3208-12. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.82.10.3208 PMid:9329340
Van Pelt RE, Dinneno FA, et al. Age-related decline in RMR in physically active men: relation to exercise volume and energy intake. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001;281:E633-9. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.2001.281.3.E633 PMid:11500320
Bullough RC, Gillette CA, et al. Interaction of acute changes in exercise energy expenditure and energy intake on resting metabolic rate. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;61:473-81. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/61.3.473 PMid:7872209
Toth MJ, Poehlman ET. Energetic adaptation to chronic disease in the elderly. Nutr Rev. 2000;58:61-6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2000.tb01840.x PMid:10812919
Baarends EM, Schols AM, et al. Total daily energy expenditure relative to resting energy expenditure in clinically stable patients with COPD. Thorax. 1997;52:780-5. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.52.9.780 PMid:9371208 PMCid:PMC1758652
Gibney E, Elia M, et al. Total energy expenditure in patients with small-cell lung cancer: results of a validated study using the bicarbonate-urea method. Metabolism. 1997;46:1412-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0026-0495(97)90140-2 PMid:9439535
Nair KS, Halliday D, et al. Increased energy expenditure in poorly controlled Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients. Diabetologia. 1984;27:13-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00253494 PMid:6147290
Poehlman ET, Dvorak RV. Energy expenditure in Alzheimer's disease. J Nutr Health Aging. 1998;2:115-8.
Avesani CM, Draibe SA, et al. Decreased resting energy expenditure in non-dialysed chronic kidney disease patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2004;19:3091-7. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfh547 PMid:15507474
Rigaud D, Hassid J, et al. A paradoxical increase in resting energy expenditure in malnourished patients near death: the king penguin syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:355-60. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/72.2.355 PMid:10919927
Toth MJ, Poehlman ET. Energetic adaptation to chronic disease in the elderly. Nutr Rev. 2000;58:61-6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2000.tb01840.x PMid:10812919
Rolfe DF, Brand MD. Contribution of mitochondrial proton leak to skeletal muscle respiration and to standard metabolic rate. Am J Physiol. 1996;271:C1380-9. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.1996.271.4.C1380 PMid:8897845
Serviddio G, Bellanti F, et al. Bioenergetics in aging: mitochondrial proton leak in aging rat liver, kidney and heart. Redox Rep. 2007;12:91-5. https://doi.org/10.1179/135100007X162112 PMid:17263918
Else PL, Hulbert AJ. Evolution of mammalian endothermic metabolism: "leaky" membranes as a source of heat. Am J Physiol. 1987;253:R1-7. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1987.253.1.R1 PMid:3605374
Couture P, Hulbert AJ. Relationship between body mass, tissue metabolic rate, and sodium pump activity in mammalian liver and kidney. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:R641-50. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1995.268.3.R641 PMid:7900906
Poole LB, Liu MS, et al. Kinetic studies of the Na+-K+-ATPase enzyme system in brain and heart of aging rats. Am J Physiol. 1984;247:R850-5. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1984.247.5.R850 PMid:6093604
Tanaka Y, Ando S. Synaptic aging as revealed by changes in membrane potential and decreased activity of Na+,K(+)-ATPase. Brain Res. 1990;506:46-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(90)91197-O PMid:2154278
Poehlman ET, Goran MI, et al. Determinants of decline in resting metabolic rate in aging females. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:E450-5. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1993.264.3.E450 PMid:8460693
Witkowski JM, Mysliwski A, et al. Decrease of lymphocyte (Na+,K+)ATP-ase activity in aged people. Mech Ageing Dev. 1985;33:11-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-6374(85)90105-8 PMid:3001440
Kennedy BG, Lever JE. Transport by the (Na+,K+) ATPase: modulation by differentiation inducers and inhibition of protein synthesis in the MDCK kidney epithelial cell line. J Cell Physiol. 1985;123:410-6. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.1041230317 PMid:2580848
Lewis SE, Goldspink DF, et al. The effects of aging and chronic dietary restriction on whole body growth and protein turnover in the rat. Exp Gerontol. 1985;20:253-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0531-5565(85)90050-6 PMid:2419151
Obled C, Arnal M. Age-related changes in whole-body amino acid kinetics and protein turnover in rats. J Nutr. 1991;121:1990-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/121.12.1990 PMid:1941263
Millward DJ, Fereday A, et al. Aging, protein requirements, and protein turnover. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66:774-86. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/66.4.774 PMid:9322550
Morais JA, Gougeon R, et al. Whole-body protein turnover in the healthy elderly. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66:880-9. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/66.4.880 PMid:9322564
Timmerman KL, Volpi E. Amino acid metabolism and regulatory effects in aging. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2008;11:45-9. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e3282f2a592 PMid:18090658 PMCid:PMC2804959
Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, et al. A high proportion of leucine is required for optimal stimulation of the rate of muscle protein synthesis by essential amino acids in the elderly. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2006;291:E381-7. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00488.2005 PMid:16507602
Urban RJ, Bodenburg YH, et al. Testosterone administration to elderly men increases skeletal muscle strength and protein synthesis. Am J Physiol. 1995;269:E820-6. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1995.269.5.E820 PMid:7491931
Brodsky IG, Balagopal P, et al. Effects of testosterone replacement on muscle mass and muscle protein synthesis in hypogonadal men--a clinical research center study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:3469-75. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.81.10.8855787 PMid:8855787
Welle S, Thornton C, et al. Growth hormone increases muscle mass and strength but does not rejuvenate myofibrillar protein synthesis in healthy subjects over 60 years old. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:3239-43. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.81.9.3239
Rasmussen BB, Fujita S, et al. Insulin resistance of muscle protein metabolism in aging. Faseb J. 2006;20:768-9. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.05-4607fje PMid:16464955 PMCid:PMC2804965
Fujita S, Rasmussen BB, et al. Aerobic exercise overcomes the age-related insulin resistance of muscle protein metabolism by improving endothelial function and Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling. Diabetes. 2007;56:1615-22. https://doi.org/10.2337/db06-1566 PMid:17351147 PMCid:PMC2740742
Ingram DK. Age-related decline in physical activity: generalization to nonhumans. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32:1623-9. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200009000-00016 PMid:10994915
Levin S, Jacobs DR, Jr, et al. Intra-individual variation and estimates of usual physical activity. Ann Epidemiol. 1999;9:481-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(99)00022-8 PMid:10549881
Prentice AM, Leavesley K, et al. Is severe wasting in elderly mental patients caused by an excessive energy requirement? Age Ageing. 1989;18:158-67. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/18.3.158 PMid:2675579
Westerterp KR, Kayser B, et al. Energy expenditure climbing Mt. Everest. J Appl Physiol. 1992;73:1815-9. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1992.73.5.1815 PMid:1474056
Masse LC, Fulton JE, et al. Influence of body composition on physical activity validation studies using doubly labeled water. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96:1357-64. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00901.2003 PMid:14660509
Goran MI. Genetic influences on human energy expenditure and substrate utilization. Behav Genet. 1997;27:389-99. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025644215744 PMid:9519564
Thorburn AW, Holdsworth A, et al. Differential and genetically separable associations of leptin with obesity-related traits. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24:742-50. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801213 PMid:10878681
Pereira HS, Sokolowski MB. Mutations in the larval foraging gene affect adult locomotory behavior after feeding in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993;90:5044-6. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.90.11.5044 PMid:8506349 PMCid:PMC46650
Joosen AM, Gielen M, et al. Genetic analysis of physical activity in twins. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82:1253-9. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/82.6.1253 PMid:16332658
Franks PW, Ravussin E, et al. Habitual physical activity in children: the role of genes and the environment. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82:901-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/82.4.901 PMid:16210723
Johannsen DL, DeLany JP, et al. Physical activity in aging: comparison among young, aged, and nonagenarian individuals. J Appl Physiol. 2008;105:495-501. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.90450.2008 PMid:18556430 PMCid:PMC2519943
Westerterp KR, Meijer EP. Physical activity and parameters of aging: a physiological perspective. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2001;56A:7-12. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/56.suppl_2.7 PMid:11730240
Verbrugge LM, Gruber-Baldini AL, et al. Age differences and age changes in activities: Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 1996;51:S30-41. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/51B.1.S30 PMid:8548521
Bijnen FC, Feskens EJ, et al. Age, period, and cohort effects on physical activity among elderly men during 10 years of follow-up: the Zutphen Elderly Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1998;53:M235-41. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/53A.3.M235 PMid:9597057
Caspersen CJ, Pereira MA, et al. Changes in physical activity patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectional age. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32:1601-9. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200009000-00013 PMid:10994912
Buchman AS, Boyle PA, et al. Physical activity and motor decline in older persons. Muscle Nerve. 2007;35:354-62. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.20702 PMid:17143881
Troiano RP, Berrigan D, et al. Physical activity in the United States measured by accelerometer. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:181-8. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e31815a51b3 PMid:18091006 PMCid:PMC5408160
Kotz CM, Teske JA, et al. Neuroregulation of nonexercise activity thermogenesis and obesity resistance. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008;294:R699-710. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00095.2007 PMid:18160530
Goran MI, Poehlman ET. Endurance training does not enhance total energy expenditure in healthy elderly persons. Am J Physiol. 1992;263:E950-7. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1992.263.5.E950 PMid:1443128
Harris AM, Lanningham-Foster LM, et al. Nonexercise movement in elderly compared with young people. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007;292:E1207-12. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00509.2006 PMid:17401138
Sallis J, Owen N. Physical Activity and Behavioral Medicine. Sage; Thousand Oaks, CA: 1999.
Martin CK, Heilbronn LK, et al. Effect of calorie restriction on resting metabolic rate and spontaneous physical activity. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2007;15:2964-73. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.354 PMid:18198305 PMCid:PMC10223414
Levine JA, Eberhardt NL, et al. Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to fat gain in humans. Science. 1999;283:212-4. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5399.212 PMid:9880251
Keys A, Brozek J, et al. The Biology of Human Starvation. University of Minnesota Press; Minneapolis: 1950.
Weed JL, Lane MA, et al. Activity measures in rhesus monkeys on long-term calorie restriction. Physiol Behav. 1997;62:97-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9384(97)00147-9 PMid:9226348
Grinker JA, Tucker K, et al. Body habitus changes among adult males from the normative aging study: relations to aging, smoking history and alcohol intake. Obes Res. 1995;3:435-46. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550-8528.1995.tb00173.x PMid:8521163
Visser M, Pahor M, et al. One- and two-year change in body composition as measured by DXA in a population-based cohort of older men and women. J Appl Physiol. 2003;94:2368-74. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00124.2002 PMid:12598481
Ramsey JJ, Harper ME, et al. Restriction of energy intake, energy expenditure, and aging. Free Radic Biol Med. 2000;29:946-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-5849(00)00417-2 PMid:11084284
Rubner M. Das problem der Lebensdauer und seine Beziehungen sum Wachstum under Ehrnarung. Oldenburg: Munich; 1908. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783486736380
Loeb J, Northrop J. On the influence of food and temperature on the duration of life. J Biol Chem. 1917;32:103-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9258(18)86663-7
Pearl R. The Biology of Death. J.B. Lippincott; Philadelphia: 1922. Pearl R. The Rate of Living. University London Press; London: 1928.
Cutler R. Anti-oxidants, aging and longevity. In: Pryor W, editor. Free Radicals in Biology. Academic Press; Orlando: 1982.
Austad SN, Fischer KE. Mammalian aging, metabolism, and ecology: evidence from the bats and marsupials. J Gerontol. 1991;46:B47-53. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/46.2.B47 PMid:1997563
Holloszy JO, Smith EK. Longevity of cold-exposed rats: a reevaluation of the "rate-of-living theory". J Appl Physiol. 1986;61:1656-60. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1986.61.5.1656 PMid:3781978
Lints FA. The rate of living theory revisited. Gerontology. 1989;35:36-57. https://doi.org/10.1159/000212998 PMid:2656413
Harman D. Aging: a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry. J Gerontol. 1956;11:298-300. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/11.3.298 PMid:13332224
Ravussin E, Lillioja S, et al. Determinants of 24-hour energy expenditure in man. Methods and results using a respiratory chamber. J Clin Invest. 1986;78:1568-78. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI112749 PMid:3782471 PMCid:PMC423919
Speakman JR, Selman C, et al. Living fast, dying when? The link between aging and energetics. J Nutr. 2002;132:1583S-97S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/132.6.1583S PMid:12042467
Paffenbarger RS, Jr, Hyde RT, et al. The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:538-45. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199302253280804 PMid:8426621
Hervey G.R., Tobin G. The part played by variation of energy expenditure in the regulation of energy balance. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 1982;41(2):137-15. https://doi.org/10.1079/PNS19820024 PMid:6810362
Heilbronn L.K., de Jonge L., Frisard M.I., DeLany J.P., Larson-Meyer D.E., Rood J. Effect of 6-month calorie restriction on biomarkers of longevity, metabolic adaptation, and oxidative stress in overweight individuals: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA.2006;295(13):1539-1548. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.295.13.1539 PMid:16595757 PMCid:PMC2692623
Leibel R.L., Rosenbaum M., Hirsch J. Changes in energy expenditure resulting from altered body weight. The New England Journal of Medicine. 1995;332(10):621-628. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199503093321001 PMid:7632212
Weigle D.S., Sande K.J., Iverius P.H., Monsen E.R., Brunzell J.D. Weight loss leads to a marked decrease in nonresting energy expenditure in ambulatory human subjects. Metabolism. 1988;37(10):930-936. https://doi.org/10.1016/0026-0495(88)90149-7 PMid:3173112
Bray G.A., Redman L.M., de Jonge L., Covington J., Rood J., Brock C. Effect of protein overfeeding on energy expenditure measured in a metabolic chamber. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2015;101(3):496-505. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.091769 PMid:25733634
Fothergill E., Guo J., Howard L., Kerns J.C., Knuth N.D., Brychta R. Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after "The Biggest Loser" competition. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2016 Aug;24(8):1612-1619. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21538 PMid:27136388 PMCid:PMC4989512
Dulloo A.G., Jacquet J. Adaptive reduction in basal metabolic rate in response to food deprivation in humans: a role for feedback signals from fat stores. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1998;68(3):599-606. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/68.3.599 PMid:9734736
Luke A., Schoeller D.A. Basal metabolic rate, fat-free mass, and body cell mass during energy restriction. Metabolism. 1992;41(4):450-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/0026-0495(92)90083-M PMid:1556954
Nutrition.Bosy-Westphal A., Kossel E., Goele K., Later W., Hitze B., Settler U. Contribution of individual organ mass loss to weight loss-associated decline in resting energy expenditure. American Journal of Clinical. 2009;90(4):993-1001. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.27402 PMid:19710198
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Nikolay Botushanov, Aleksandar Botushanov, Albena Botushanova (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0)
